SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATION  

Thousands of years ago, we wouldn't have been able to correctly explain how the earth operated if someone asked us. Things we didn't comprehend were attributed to divine praise or wrath, or the belief that the world was random. We now have a greater understanding of why things are the way they are because of science. Science is the accumulation of knowledge through "observations" and "experiments." Science is concerned with nature.. As a result, we might refer to it as natural philosophy. An observation and measurement are used in a scientific explanation to clarify something we perceive in the natural world. Scientific explanations should be reasonable and match the facts, or at the very least match as much of the evidence as possible.

 SCIENTIFIC EXPLAINATION

To provide scientific explanations, we require scientific information in order to forecast outcomes. We must, however, be able to explain things. The nature of scientific explanations has piqued philosophers' curiosity. Understanding the commonalities between many things was the goal of scientific explanation. Different kinds of items attract the curiosity of scientists.

• How To Investigate Scientific Explanation?

Research into the nature of scientific explanation is referred to as a scientific explanation research. In order to find this nature or essence, we must first examine the concept of scientific explanation. An explanation will follow from such an examination of the concept of scientific explanation. This explanation will produce the required and sufficient circumstances for something to be considered scientific.

• Scientific Questions and Explanation.

The scientific method necessitates the use of questions. However, simply asking any question is insufficient. Science is all about posing good questions that can be answered with direct observation or scientific methods. Questions that investigate the connections between different phenomena. Let us consider the question, "What is the meaning of life?" This is a thought-provoking question, to say the least. Its response would most likely be dependent on your personal ideals or beliefs. As a result, the answer would differ widely depending on who was answering. While this may be an appropriate subject for a philosophy or theology  class, It is not a question that can be answered by science.

• Deduction and Induction

Generally speaking, there are two sorts of reasons: deduction and induction. The deduction is sometimes called the top-down approach. It takes premises and reduces them down to conclusions. For example, of deductive reasoning. 

(P1) All men are mortal

(P2) Earl Gray is a man 

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(C) Therefore, Earl Gray is mortal.

 We can be logically certain of the conclusion. Given the premises, the conclusion must be true. Inductive reasoning is sometimes called the bottom-up approach. It takes premises and draws probable conclusions based on what those premises provide evidence for.

THE DEDUCTIVE–NOMOLOGICAL SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATION

Carl Hempel and Paul Oppenheim present a theory of what makes something a scientific explanation. Simply put a scientific explanation deduces the thing you want to explain from a law of nature, plus some initial conditions.

In a scientific way to explain something, we see in the natural world, scientists employ observations and measurements. We should also work on asking strong scientific questions, developing strategies for appropriately investigating questions, analyzing findings, making conclusions, and being able to describe, explain, and forecast scientific discoveries as part of the objective of writing this article

   GENDER ISSUES & UNDERSTANDING AND REDUCING RACIAL AND ETHNIC PREJUDICE   

Gender issues include all aspects and concerns related to women’s and men’s lives and situation in society, to the way they interrelate, their differences in access to and use of resources, their activities, and how they react to changes, interventions and policies. Gender equality is the state of equal ease of access to resources and opportunities regardless of gender, including economic participation and decision-making; and the state of valuing different behaviors, aspirations and needs equally, regardless of gender. Gender equality is the goal, while gender neutrality and gender equity are practices and ways of thinking that help in achieving the goal. Gender parity, which is used to measure gender balance in a given situation, can aid in achieving gender equality, but is not the goal in and of itself. Gender equality is more than equal representation, it is strongly tied to women's rights, and often requires policy changes.

When will society be gender just?

In post-industrial liberal-democratic societies, opinions vary dramatically on whether these societies are gender just. Both scholars and the wider public disagree on this question. Newspaper articles, television programs and other public debates indicate that gender inequality is not only a topical but also a controversial issue, on which many people have strong views. As Deborah Rhode argues, some claim that unjust inequalities between women and men no longer exist, or that women's liberation has achieved more than enough, and these days it is men who are suffering discrimination. Others disagree, and argue that unjust inequalities to the disadvantage of women remain, despite the post-feminist discourse. One might expect that the literature in inequality studies, and related fields in the social sciences and political philosophy, would be able to assess these conflicting claims, and inform us of the nature and extent of unjust gender inequalities. Unfortunately, this is not really the case: there are very few systematic studies that provide a satisfying answer to this question. The reason for this is that an adequate answer to this question requires both normative theorizing and empirical analyses. Normative political philosophers are concerned with the first, while social scientists specialize in empirical research. But most theoretical studies do not engage with empirical analysis, and more empirical studies are not based on a well-elaborated underlying theory of gender justice.

Sexism

Sexism is prejudice or discrimination based on one's sex or gender. Sexism can affect anyone, but it primarily affects women and girls. It has been linked to stereotypes and gender roles, and may include the belief that one sex or gender is intrinsically superior to another. Extreme sexism may foster sexual harassment, rape, and other forms of sexual violence. Gender discrimination may encompass sexism, and is discrimination toward people based on their gender identity or their gender or sex differences. Gender discrimination is especially defined in terms of workplace inequality. It may arise from social or cultural customs and norms.

Understanding and reducing racial and ethnic prejudice.

There are a wide variety of explicit and implicit measures of children’s and adolescents’ racial and ethnic attitudes. The developmental appropriateness of various measures of racial attitudes is an important consideration. Young children who need help with reading typically complete measures with the help of an adult such as a research assistant, teacher, or teacher aide whereas older children complete measures or surveys concerning their attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs on their own and thus are given greater privacy. Some measures are developed first with an adult or adolescent samples and then simplified to be used with younger samples. Pictorial versions of response sets might be presented to young children instead of text-only response sets given to older children and adolescents. A standard Likert5-point response scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree might be amended with schematic faces that are smiling or frowning for use with younger children. Future work is needed to affirm the predictive validity of various measures and to affirm the existence of a differentiation between implicit and explicit attitudes in very young children. It is important for researchers to make strides in racial attitude measurement as they make strides in racial attitude.

RACE, ETHNICITY AND PREJUDICE

    Race and Racism  

 This historical concept of race has been subjected to significant scientific and philosophical challenges, with some leading thinkers disputing both the concept's logical coherence and the reality of races. Humans were once divided into only four races, according to certain philosophers. (usually white or Caucasian, black or African, yellow or Asian, and red or Native American), and minimized any biological or morphological differences within racial categories. Other theorists divided people into a plethora of racial groups, claiming, for example, that individuals “indigenous” to Europe might be divided into distinct Nordic, Alpine, and Mediterranean races. The ambiguities and confusion associated with determining the boundaries of racial categories have provoked a widespread scholarly consensus that discrete or essentialist races are socially constructed, not biologically real. Finally, substantial controversy surrounds the moral status of racial identity and solidarity and the justice and legitimacy of policies or institutions aimed at undermining racial inequality and racism, also called racialism, the belief that humans may be divided into separate and exclusive biological entities called “races”; that there is a causal link between inherited physical traits and traits of personality, intellect, morality, and other cultural and behavioral features; and that some races are innately superior to others.

  Ethnicity

Ethnicity is a scientific term that refers to the presence of culturally different (ethnic) groups and identities. When it comes to ethnic communities (peoples) from various locations, the term "ethnos" is more commonly employed in social science. Ethnicity refers to a group of people who have similar social, cultural, and historical experiences as a result of their shared national or regional origins, that distinguishes subgroups of a population from one another Similarly, an ethnic group is a subgroup of a population that shares a common set of social, cultural, and historical experiences, as well as relatively unique views, values, and behaviors, and a sense of belonging to the subgroup. The phrases ethnicity and ethnic group, when used in this way, eliminate the biological implications of the terms race and racial group. Many social scientists prefer the word ethnicity when discussing persons of color and those with different cultural heritages due to difficulties with the definition of race.

Culture 

Cultural claims political and legal spheres, there is widespread disagreement about what culture is, and the next section is focused on elaborating these distinct views of culture. There is however considerable agreement that whatever it is, it matters to people and the meaning and value it provides to the lives of individuals are among the most important reasons, if not the most important ones, to defend and protect it in legal and political spaces. Moreover, any one person can be a member of multiple cultures. Someone can be a member of the Canadian culture, Ottawa culture, the Jewish culture, and academic culture at the same time. Contextual considerations will explain why the norms, practices, and values that define each of these cultures become relevant at a particular moment. Finally, only some of these cultures have political and legal relevance; only those that do are the focus of this entry.

Prejudice

 Prejudice is an unjustified or incorrect attitude (usually negative) towards an individual based solely on the individual’s membership of a social group. For example, a person may hold prejudiced views towards a certain race or gender etc. (e.g. sexist).

 

    PRACTICAL ETHICS  & HEDONISM  

What is Practical Ethics?

• Practical ethics are meant to concern substantive moral issues facing many of us each day, such as abortion or climate change. The subject of normative or theoretical ethics is the more abstract principles that might enable us to make decisions about these practical issues.

  What Ethics Is Not ,                                                                                                                                              

Ethics is not based on whether we feel something is right or wrong. Sometimes, our feelings signal to us that we are facing an ethical dilemma, and we want to “do the right thing,” but feelings also may prevent us from behaving ethically, perhaps out of fear or conflicting desires. Ethics is also not solely the purview of a religion or religious beliefs. Although most religions incorporate an ethical code of conduct into their belief system, religious faith is not required to be ethical and ethical principles apply to everyone regardless of religious affiliation. Being ethical does not always entail abiding by the letter of the law, although most laws articulate ethical standards generally accepted by the citizenry.

PHILOSOPHY OF TESTIMONY

  PHILOSOPHY  OF  TESTIMONY  

ENHANCE THE LEARNING, PERCEPTION AND HUMAN UNDERSTANDING

  ENHANCE THE LEARNING, PERCEPTION AND HUMAN UNDERSTANDING  

WHAT is Learning?

Learning is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, attitudes, and preferences. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals, and some machines; there is also evidence for some kind of learning in certain plants. Some learning is immediate, induced by a single, but much skill and knowledge accumulate from repeated experiences. The changes induced by learning often last a lifetime, and it is hard to distinguish learned material that seems to be "lost" from that which cannot be retrieved.

 HOW THE HUMAN BRAIN LEARNS?

Learning is a complicated practice. Several thousand years ago, the primary obligation of the human brain was to figure out how to find food, avoid getting eaten by a predator (including finding a safe place to sleep), and find a mate. Now, in addition to those basic human functions, our brains are inundated with other facts and tasks that need to be learned.

The brain is composed of a trillion cells of at least two known types, nerve cells (neurons) and glial M cells. Each brain neuron is about one hundredth of the size of the period at the end of this sentence. Even though most of the neurons where information is stored are present at birth, there is lifelong growth of the support and connecting cells that enrich the communication between neurons. 

Dendrites are tree like extensions (dendrite actually comes from the Greek word meaning treelike) that protrude from a neuron and receive information from other neurons and transmit information to other neurons along axons. Each neuron can have up to 10,000 branches, dendrites, emerging from its core but only one axon. 

New dendrites grow as branches from frequently activated neurons. Once these dendrites are formed, the brain’s plasticity allows it to reshape and reorganize the networks of dendrite-neuron connections in response to increased or decreased use of these pathways. Axons are surrounded by a fatty layer of tissue called the myelin sheath which helps speed up the neural impulses between neuron. Practice, in a variety of formats, helps fatten up the myelin sheath, which strengthens the connections between neurons in different area of our brain and helps those neurons perform in unison. A Practice also helps grow and thicken the dendrites. 

Impulses are sent between neurons from the axon’s terminal buttons by shooting neurotransmitters across the synapse. Neurotransmitters are brain chemicals like dopamine, amino acids serotonin, and tryptophan carries information across the space separating the axon extensions of one neuron, from the dendrite that leads to the next neuron on the pathway. Forming and strengthening the connections between the neurons in our brain is the foundation of learning. The next brain lesson will introduce other concepts to help you understand and take charge of your learning process.

 A NEW LOOK AT LEARNING

There is a new understanding of how learning occurs, and it contradicts what most students believe happens when they learn. Students must be aware of new discoveries in order to optimize their learning skills.

•  Neuroscience research shows that when you learn something new, there is a physical change in your brain. Some of your brain cells establish connections with other brain cells to form new networks of cells, which represent the new learning that has taken place.
•   Every time you use or practice newly learned information or skills, the connections between the brain cells get stronger and your ability to recall the information becomes faster. This is called long-term potentiation.
•  The important message for all learners is that new learning requires a considerable amount of practice and a meaningful connection to other information in order to become a permanent part of memory.
•  Neuroscience research has also found that to form lasting memories, practice needs to happen over extended periods. Psychologists call this the distributed practice effect.
•  Cramming is not learning. A day or two of cramming is not nearly enough time for the brain to form the permanent memories necessary to meet the neuroscience definition of learning.
•  You can demonstrate learning by using new information to help you learn similar new information or by applying it to problems beyond those you have been doing in class. Psychologists call this transference.
•  The human brain is constantly looking for connections to prior knowledge. These connections link previously learned material to new material, creating a more meaningful understanding of the new material.
•  The message from neuroscience researchers is simple: “The one who does the work does the learning”. Only when you practice, read, write, think, talk, collaborate, and reflect does your brain make permanent connections. Your teachers cannot do this for you.

Logic and understanding the basic features of Arguments.

   ANALYSIS OF THE ARGUMENT